On Saturday, October 14th, 1066, the armies of King Harold Godwinson and William, Duke of Normandy collided on the field near the town of Hastings, England.

What transpired that day, would prove to be the most monumental event in all of British history. However the ripple effects of this battle’s outcome, would affect the entire world, even the coming colonial age and the discovery of the Americas.

For if this battle, which was as violent and closely matched as they came, had gone the other way, the very language we speak would be monumentally different and indeed the United States as we know it, would perhaps be a very different country (if we would exist at all).

Background

Much of what we think we know about the Battle of Hastings, is illustrated by the Bayeux Tapestry; a 70 metre long, embroidered linen which depicts scenes of the events before and during the battle. We dont really know who made the cloth but was probably made in Normandy a decade or so after the battle. However historians also source written accounts from England and broader France from this time period to help put the puzzle pieces together. The reality is, that despite the plethora of expert research that has been done on this pivotal event, there is still much we dont know.

What we can say for certain is, that the battle happened and we know it was between two men, vying to be King of England.

We know where it happened, we know who won it and we know the consequences which followed. What remains hazy, is why William Duke of Normandy felt so compelled to take the English throne. Did Harold Godwinson really, two years before the Battle of Hastings, swear on holy relics his allegiance to William as rightful heir to the throne of England?

And did King Edward tell William personally that he was his heir or did he on his deathbed, name Harold Godwinson as his true successor?

These answers are lost to us, in the midst of contradicting accounts, the bias of the victorious and perhaps most all, human ego.

And that may very well sum up this bloody story of western history; human ego

Anglo Saxon England

England in the middle 11th century, was finally emerging from the Viking age which for the past 200 years, saw warriors from Scandinavia consistently invade and harass the peoples of Britain and Ireland. England was an Anglo-Saxon kingdom, a land of Germanic peoples who had originally migrated to Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries following the collapse of Rome. The Anglo Saxons were first, from Northern Germany and Denmark and indeed shared much in common in language and culture with the Viking raiders who tried to dominate them beginning in the 800’s.

The English during this period, spoke a language we now call today, Old English. Compared to modern English, it is almost completely unintelligible and has more in common with Dutch, Frisian, German and Swedish. Intriguingly, Old English had much in common with Old Norse, the language of the Vikings and this allowed for fairly easy communication between the two groups. However, the Vikings werent always that interested in talking.

The Lord’s Prayer in Old English

Old English (Source)	Modern English
Fæder ure þu þe eart on heofonum, si þin nama gehalgod. to becume þin rice, gewurþe ðin willa, on eorðan swa swa on heofonum. urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us todæg, and forgyf us ure gyltas, swa swa we forgyfað urum gyltendum. and ne gelæd þu us on costnunge, ac alys us of yfele soþlice.	Our father which art in heaven, hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done On earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our trespasses as we forgive those who trespass against us. And lead us not into temptation, But deliver us from evil.

Kings, Earls and Dukes

After the Vikings landed at Lindisfarne Monastery in 793 and slaughtered all the monks, a period of a back and forth power struggle between the Anglo Saxons and the Scandinavian seafarers began. The Saxons would repel the Vikings, only for them to regroup and attack England again and again. It wasnt until 927 that the individual Anglo Saxon kingdoms united to form England, under King Æthelstan of Wessex, who is widely considered to be one of the greatest Kings in English history. After his death however, England fragmented again and there would be more decades of bloody struggle between the Vikings and Saxons.

The Vikings also raided other parts of Europe, including France and in the early 900’s, they were granted land as effort of appeasement by the king of France, Charles The Simple and thus, The Dutchy of Normandy was founded. Normandy comes from the base, “Northmen,” and was used in reference to the Scandinavians who settled in the region. The Vikings in Normandy, would largely adopt French customs and would even convert to Christianity. France was also a largely Germanic culture at the time and the customs between them and the Vikings were fairly similar, however their conversion to Christianity and coming under the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Church was a huge change.

In the midst of the power struggle between the Vikings and the Anglo-Saxons in England, the Saxon Nobles intermarried with Danish Nobility.

Cnut the Great, King of Denmark, became King of England in 1016, and largely gained favor with his English subjects as he sought to unite the similarities of Danish and Saxon peoples. Though he did try to eliminate the Saxon Nobility of Wessex of which were the descendants of Æthelstan and Alfred the Great. It was during Cnut’s reign that the term ‘Earl,’ began being used to address nobles, instead of the Anglo-Saxon word, ‘Ealderman.’ ‘Earl,’ is rooted from ‘Jarl,’ which was previously used in Scandinavia to address a man of high rank. Two of Cnut’s sons would succeed him after his death in 1035 but their rule would be short lived.

Fast forward to 1042, and Edward the Confessor, returned from exile in France and was crowned King of England. As a descendant of the house of Wessex on his father’s side, England was now ruled by a Saxon once again. Despite this heritage, Edward appeared to surround himself with Normans, in part to the relationships he probably formed while he was exiled in France and possibly due to his mother’s influence who was also born in Normandy.. This drew ere from Saxon nobles, including the Earl of Wessex, Earl Godwin. Edward was childless and as such, made his succession a messy situation. In Norman accounts, it is written that Edward had promised his second cousin, William Duke of Normandy, that he would be heir to his throne when William visited England sometime around 1050.

Though Edward would marry Godwin’s daughter Edith in 1045, it was rumored he wished to conceive with her but she would never become pregnant.

It is believed by many prominent historians, that Edward’s indecisiveness about his successor was one of the biggest blunders in English royal history.

Towards the end of his reign, Godwin’s family, including his son Harold, had gained enormous power and influence in England, with some evidence suggesting Edward had accepted that Harold would succeed him. Harold visited Normandy in 1064 on what is believed to be a diplomatic mission on behalf of Edward. He was shipwrecked off the French coast and believed to be taken captive by William the Duke.

Norman accounts from this time including the Bayeux Tapestry, write that Harold swore upon holy relics, that upon Edward’s death he would submit to William as rightful king of England. Unfortunately, it is impossible to know if any of this happened. It is theorized by some that Harold may have only sworn because William was going to imprison or execute him if he didnt and it is also possible that Harold wasnt even on a diplomatic mission to Normandy, but was actually going somewhere else before his ship got caught in a storm.

Before Edward slipped into a coma and died in early January of 1066, it was written by sources that he declared Harold as the rightful heir to his crown. The Witan (King’s council and advisors) quickly declared Harold as King of England on January 6th, 1066.

When William The Duke got word of Harold’s coronation at Winchester Abbey in London, he was furious.

1066

The Anglo Saxon Chronicle, was a series of records and stories that had begun being complied during the reign of Saxon King, Alfred the Great in the year 890. Alot of what we know of Britain during the early medieval period, is owed to these documents which are today held in the libraries of Oxford and Cambridge.

The Anglo Saxon Chronicle records that upon the Coronation of Harold Godwinson, the new King had his work cut out for him. His brother, Tostig, who Harold was forced to exile in 1065 by orders of Edward, was plotting against him and gathering allies in Flanders and Norway.

The Duke of Normandy on the other hand, was hellbent on reclaiming what he saw as rightfully his. He took time to gather his army and sent an ambassador to Rome in order to argue his case for the English Crown. His ambassador argued successfully on William’s behalf and Pope Alexander II, soon sent to William a Papal Banner, signifying the Church’s approval and of which William would carry with him to England.

It was a bit ironic, William who was viking by heritage, and whose ancestors only a few generations back, would slaughter Christian priests and raid monasteries, now had the blessing of the Vicar of Christ to make a war with the people of England who had been Christians for three centuries.

William would now gather his forces by promising land and plunder to the men of Normandy, Flanders and broader France. The Nobles initially would not along with William’s plans for conquest as they heard to much pride and ego in his words. They needed to know what was in it for them, and thus William promised them the lands and estates of the Anglo-Saxon nobles that he planned on destroying.

Meanwhile in the summer of 1066, Tostig, bitter and resentful towards his brother Harold, convinced the King of Norway, Harold Hardrada, to join him in an alliance retake England.

They rather quickly raised an army and landed in northeast England in September. At the Battle of Gate Fulford, they routed the English troops.

Taken by surprise, King Harold who was in London, marched with Haste to the north. Historians note that the speed in which Harold was able to organize the army and gather weapons and supplies, was impressive and was indicative of why he was chosen by the Witan to be king. Only five days after Tostig and Harold Hardrada had landed in England, Harold Godwinson, met his brother and the Norwegian king at the small village of Stamford Bridge.

With both sides possessing about 15,000 men, Harold and the English decisively defeated the Norweigan force. Probably around 10,000 men from the Norwegian army were killed, including Harold Hardrada and Tostig.

The battle represented the definitive end of the Viking age in Europe. No more, would the warriors of Scandinavia, board their iconic long ship boats and invade the British Isles.

Hastings

The victory for King Harold would be bitter sweet. His brother Tostig, despite the betrayal, was dead and his army had still suffered losses. Only three days after the battle of Stamford Bridge, Harold learned that William Duke of Normandy, had landed in southeast England with an enormous armada.

With very little rest, Harold now was forced to march 290 miles south to face William. It is important to note that Harold’s army had very few horses and thus the vast majority of his men would be marching on foot, carrying their chainmail armor, shields, swords, axes and helmets. The average soldier probably was adorning over 50lbs of gear.

It took Harold and his army almost two weeks to reach the town of Hastings on the English coast, where William’s army was encamped.

Within his camp, William The Duke, raised the Pope’s Banner high, showing his men that their cause was right and just, and that God himself was on their side.

Battle

At about 9 o’clock in the morning on October 14th, the two armies faced each other in a field in Hastings which the Anglo Saxon Chronicle specifically calls ‘near the grey apple tree.’ Today in England this field is literally called, ‘Battle.’

The two armies on the field represented not just two different nations but two different military styles. The English army, was organized using the tried and tested, “Shield Wall” fighting method. This style which had been used by the Vikings and Anglo Saxons for centuries, had the soldiers standing shoulder to shoulder, overlapping their shields. This formation would march forward in unison and provide protection from archers. Spears and swords would be poking through any openings of the shield wall.

William’s army on the other hand, represented a new and revolutionary style of warfare in medieval Europe. He had archers at the front of the line with foot soldiers standing behind and another division of archers standing ready behind both formations. And behind these three formations, William had his mounted Calvary, or what would become known as Knights. Adorning heavy armor and long spears, while sheathing a sword, knights had proven to become effective warriors in Normandy.

Harold’s army exhausted from the march, formed their shield wall while William unleashed his archers. After a few volleys, the Normans charged forward and attached the English head on. For awhile, Harold’s shieldwall held strong and the English killed many Normans. It was as bloody and gruesome as a scene as anyone could imagine. The Saxons would thrust their spears through their shield walls and even upon missing, pulling the spear back with their sharp hooked edges, would catch a Norman soldiers’ knee or face and rip out ligaments, ears, eyes and muscles. Axes that could decapitate a horse, would come down on a man’s shoulder blade which even with chain-mail, would nearly split him in two pieces.

It was said that Harold’s shieldwall was packed so tightly, that the dead would be unable to fall forward and instead became meat shields, protecting the men who still stood fighting.

The English had the upper hand and the Normans began retreating. However it turned out to be a faux retreat, as William baited the English to abandon their shield wall. Exposed, William’s mounted knights swarmed the men and cut them down where they stood.

Shrieks of pain and groans echoed far off from the field of Battle, as both Normans and Saxons lay maimed and dying.

Then in a moment that definitively changed the course of History forever, the Bayeux Tapestry shows that an arrow struck King Harold in the eye, killing him almost immediately.

Upon seeing their dead king, the Saxon army went into durress. The Normans sent in another calvary charged and slaughtered the English.

William, Duke of Normandy, now William The Conqueror, had won the Battle of Hastings and would take the English throne. The Anglo Saxon period of British history, had ended.

Aftermath

William The Conqueror was not a kind king. He would go on to destroy the farms and estates of the Saxon nobility in a brutal fashion. He burnt entire English villages to the ground and installed a regime of fear across the country. His method of governing may have been because of his anger towards the Saxons for not originally selecting him as king after Edward’s death, but whatever fury he felt towards the Saxon Nobility, the peasant population felt the same wrath. His ruthlessness could also be due to simply his blood and heritage. The Normans were the descendants of Vikings and while arguably a bit more sophisticated, their methods hadn’t changed.

William did follow through on his promises to the men who fought with him at Hastings and he installed them into positions of power. This new ruling class, was much more centralized, with power being held among fewer elites.

The Normans spoke French and thus Old English, became an actively persecuted language. From 1066 onward, only the lowly peasant class of English society continued to speak Old English, while the ruling class was now speaking French.

This was one of the more clearly evident effects of William’s victory at Hastings, the changing of the English language. Over time and after William’s death, Old English and French mixed together, forming what became first, Middle English and then Modern English, which emerged in the 16th century, and is of course what we speak today. Simply put, the English language went from being a purely Germanic dialect, that was mutually intelligible to Scandinavian speakers, to something different and new.

William also abolished the long practiced Anglo Saxon, Witan, which was essentially the King’s council but was also an assembly of landowners from across the country. The Witan didnt just advise the king and indeed choose a new king, as we saw happened with Harold Godwinson after Edward’s death, but they also met to discuss issues in farming.

William instead established the Curia Regis, which is Latin for “kings court.” The Curia Regis, is called the predecessor to the modern British Parliament and was more organized than the Saxon Witan.

William also completely reorganized English counties, or Shires, as they were known and made Shire-Reeves (which eventually evolved into the word, ‘Sheriff’), chief tax collector for the King.

William’s victory at Hastings and the ensuing Norman-Anglo Crown, also ensured England’s closer involvement with continental Europe, particularly France. While Anglo-Saxon England, was connected to Northern Germany, Denmark and Scandinavia, Norman England shifted the country’s center of gravity, to one that favored France and Rome.

This shift would force England to get heavily influenced by the turbulent events and politics of Europe’s Middle Ages to come, including the Crusades, Military Conflicts with France and Spain, the invasion of neighboring Ireland and the eventual colonization of North America.

After William’s successful take over of England, the Catholic Church realized they found a very capable kingdom under their control. They would use William’s great grandson, Henry II, to invade and subjugate Ireland in 1155 of which, they werent receiving taxes from previously. Ireland would remain under English rule well into the 20th century.

When the Colonial age began in the 16th and 17th centuries, England would became a pivotal player in developing colonies in North America. Though it was doing so, partly out of it’s rivalries with France and Spain. Because England was in conflict with these countries almost constantly during the Middle Ages, the Crown’s ambitions in America, were at least partly due to a desire to prevent France and Spain from gaining an upper hand.

Had Harold Godwinson won the Battle of Hastings, England very well may have followed the development of Denmark and Scandinavia, countries which had very limited roles in the colonization of North America. And thus, England would not have given birth to the United States and this above all, may be why The Battle of Hastings is such a crucial event in western history.